SUPER RARE VINTAGE 26 Inch Buddhist & Hindu Lord Ganesh Puppet Marionette For Sale -

SUPER RARE!

VINTAGE 26 Inch Buddhist & Hindu Lord Ganesh PuppetMarionette

100% HANDMADE

This is a very rare andbeautifullyrestored vintage 26 inch Lord Ganesh puppetthat I was found during a recent visit to the Golden Triangle region.Before the advent of television, puppets like this were very popular and played a crucial role in culture and religion throughout Southeast Asia and beyond.It wasentirelyhand made, even the embroidered clothing and hand carved teak wood head and arms. Lord Ganesh (The Remover of Obstacles) is worshiped and adored by Hindus and Buddhist alike. I have included more info about Lord Ganesh below. DON\'T LET THIS UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY PASS YOU BY... BUY IT NOW!

Dimensions: Approx 26 inches X 12 inches (Can be seen in photos above).

Materials: Teak Wood & Fabric

Age: Circa 1930

Don\'t let this unique opportunity pass you by. Buy it Now!

Thanks for your time and consideration... Dobuydon

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I will ship your item via InternationalRegistered Air Mail as soon as payment is received. Registered Mail is the mostreliable and secure method of shipping and guarantees that your item willarrive. I have never lost any registered mail shipments. Normal shipping timeto most locations is 10-14 business days. Sometimes it can take longer… pleasebe patient. Onceyour shipment arrives, a signaturewill be required. If no one is available to sign for the shipment the postoffice should leave a notice and you may have to go pick up your item.

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ONCE YOU RECEIVE YOURSHIPMENT-Iask that you please email and let me know that you have received the shipmentas soon as possible. If you are happy with the item and with the service that Ihave provided, I ask that you please leave POSITIVE response. I strive toprovide 5 STAR products and services...Thanks again for your support….Dobuydon.

GaneshaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\"Vinayaka\" and \"Vinayakudu\" redirect here. For other uses, seeVinayaka (disambiguation).\"Ganapati\" and \"Ganapathy\" redirect here. For other uses, seeGanapati (disambiguation).For other uses, seeGanesha (disambiguation).GaneshaGanesha has the head of an elephant and the body of Gaṇeśāya NamaḥWeaponParaśu(Axe),pāśa(Snare) ,aṅkuśa(Elephant hook)ConsortBuddhi(wisdom), Riddhi ofa seriesonHinduism

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Although he is known by many attributes, Ganesha\'selephanthead makes him easy to identify.[6]Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles,[7]the patron of arts and sciences and thedevaof intellect and wisdom.[8]As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions.[9][10]Several texts relatemythological anecdotesassociated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography.

Ganesha emerged as a distinct deity in the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during theGupta Period, although he inherited traits from Vedic and pre-Vedic precursors.[11]He was formally included among the five primary deities ofSmartism(a Hindu denomination) in the 9th century. A sect of devotees called theGanapatyaarose, who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity.[12]The principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are theGanesha Purana, theMudgala Purana, and theGanapati Atharvashirsa.

Contents[hide]

• 1Etymology and other names
• 2Iconography
  • 2.1Common attributes
  • 2.2Vahanas
• 3Associations
  • 3.1Obstacles
  • 3.2Buddhi (Knowledge)
  • 3.3Aum
  • 3.4First chakra
• 4Family and consorts
• 5Worship and festivals
  • 5.1Ganesh Chaturthi
  • 5.2Temples
• 6Rise to prominence
  • 6.1First appearance
  • 6.2Possible influences
  • 6.3Vedic and epic literature
  • 6.4Puranic period
  • 7Beyond India and Hinduism
  • 8Notes
  • 9References
  • 10External links
  Etymology and other names[edit]Ganesha as \'Shri Mayureshwar\' with consorts Buddhi and Siddhi,Morgaon(the central shrine for the regionalAshtavinayakcomplex)[13]

  Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, includingGanapatiandVighneshvara. The Hindu title of also spelledSriorShree) is often added before his name. One popular way Ganesha is worshipped is by chanting aGanesha Sahasranama, a litany of \"a thousand names of Ganesha\". Each name in thesahasranamaconveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. At least two different versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama exist; one version is drawn from theGanesha Purana, aHindu scripturevenerating Ganesha.[14]

  The nameGaneshais a Sanskrit compound, joining the wordsgana(Sanskrit:गण; IAST:gaṇa), meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system andisha(Sanskrit:ईश; IAST:īśa), meaning lord or master.[15]The wordgaņawhen associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue ofShiva(IAST:Śiva).[16]The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation.[17]Some commentators interpret the name \"Lord of theGaņas\" to mean \"Lord of Hosts\" or \"Lord of created categories\", such as the IAST:gaṇapati), a synonym forGanesha, is a compound composed ofgaṇa, meaning \"group\", andpati, meaning \"ruler\" or \"lord\".[17]TheAmarakosha,[19]an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms toVighnesha),Dvaimātura(one who has two mothers),[20]Gaṇādhipa(equivalent toGanapatiandGanesha),Ekadanta(one who has one tusk),Heramba,Lambodara(one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), andGajanana(IAST:gajānana); having the face of an elephant).[21]

  A prominent name for Ganesha in theTamil (Little Child).[26]A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying thatpillaimeans a \"child\" whilepillaiyarmeans a \"noble child\". He adds that the wordspallu,pella, andpellin theDravidian family of languagessignify \"tooth or tusk\", also \"elephant tooth or tusk\".[27]Anita Raina Thapan notes that theroot wordpillein the namePillaiyarmight have originally meant \"the young of the elephant\", because thePaliwordpillakameans \"a young elephant\".[28]

  In theBurmese language, Ganesha is known asMaha pèiɴné]), derived fromPaliMahā widespread name of Ganesha inThailandisPhra PhikhanetorPhra Phikhanesuan, both of which are derived fromVara VighneshaandVara Vighneshvararespectively, whereas the nameKhanet(fromGanesha) is rather rare.

  InSri Lankain the North-Central and North Western areas with pre dominantlyBuddhistpopulation, Ganesha is known asAiyanayakaDeviyo while in other Singhala buddhist areas he is known as Gana deviyo.

  Iconography[edit]A 13th-century statue of Ganesha,Mysore District,Karnataka

  Ganesha is a popular figure inIndian art.[30]Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time.[31]He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down or on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations.

  Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts ofIndiaby the 6th century.[32]The 13th century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900–1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha\'s common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973–1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost,[33]and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal.[34]Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature.[35]A more primitive statue in one of theEllora Caveswith this general form has been dated to the 7th century.[36]Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or agoadin one upper arm and apasha(noose) in the other upper arm.

  The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (abhayamudra).[37]The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme.[38]

  Common attributes[edit]For thirty-two popular iconographic forms of Ganesha, seeSritattvanidhiA typical four-armed form. Miniature ofNurpurschool (circa 1810)[39]

  Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.[40]Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head.[41]One of his popular forms,Heramba-Ganapati, has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.[42]While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories.[43]The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created byParvatiusing clay to protect her andShivabeheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva andParvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha\'s original head with that of an elephant.[44]Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source.[45][46]Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva\'s laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.[47]

  Ganesha\'s earliest name wasEkadanta(One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken.[48]Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk.[49]The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in theMudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha\'s secondincarnationis Ekadanta.[50]Ganesha\'s protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries).[51]This feature is so important that, according to theMudgala Purana, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it:Lambodara(Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) andMahodara(Great Belly).[52]Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (IAST:udara).[53]TheBrahmanda Puranasays that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e.,cosmic eggs; IAST:brahmāṇḍas) of the past, present, and future are present in him.[54]The number of Ganesha\'s arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms.[55]Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.[56]His earliest images had two arms.[57]Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries.[58]The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms.[59]According to theGanesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpentVasukiaround his neck.[60]Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread (IAST:yajñyopavīta)[61]wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha\'s forehead may be athird eyeor theShaivitesectarian mark (IAST:tilaka), which consists of three horizontal lines.[62]TheGanesha Puranaprescribes atilakamark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead.[63]A distinct form of Ganesha calledBhalachandra(IAST:bhālacandra; \"Moon on the Forehead\") includes that iconographic element.[64]Ganesha is often described as red in color.[65]Specific colors are associated with certain forms.[66]Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise onHindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations Who Releases from Bondage).[67]Ekadanta-Ganapatiis visualized as blue during meditation in that form.[68]

  Vahanas[edit]Ganesha\'s dancing and love of sweets are represented. The mouse is depicted at the base.[69]The Walters Art Museum.

  The earliest Ganesha images are without avahana(mount/vehicle).[70]Ofthe eight incarnations of Ganesha described in theMudgala Purana, Ganesha uses a mouse (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation asVakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation asVikata, andShesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation asVighnaraja.[71]Mohotkatauses a lion,Mayūreśvarauses a peacock,Dhumraketuuses a horse, andGajananauses a mouse, in thefour incarnations of Ganeshalisted in theGanesha Purana. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse, elephant, tortoise, ram, or peacock.[72]

  Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by amouse,shreworrat.[73]Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet.[74]The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in theMatsya Puranaand later in theBrahmananda PuranaandGanesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation.[75]TheGanapati Atharvashirsaincludes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag.[76]The namesMūṣakavāhana(mouse-mount) andĀkhuketana(rat-banner) appear in theGanesha Sahasranama.[77]

  The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, \"Many, if not most of those who interpretGaṇapati\'s mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizestamoguṇaas well as desire\".[78]Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish.[79]Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit wordmūṣaka(mouse) is derived from the rootmūṣ(stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type ofvighna(impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function asVigneshvara(Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folkgrāma-devatā(village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.[80]Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret style=\"margin: 0.5em 0px; line-height: inherit;\">Ganesha isVighneshvaraorVighnarajaor \"Vighnaharta\"(marathi), the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order.[82]He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Paul Courtright says that \"his task in the divine scheme of things, hisdharma, is to place and remove obstacles. It is his particular territory, the reason for his creation.\"[83]

  Krishan notes that some of Ganesha\'s names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time.[25]Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of theGanapatyas, to this shift in emphasis fromvighnakartā(obstacle-creator) both functions continue to be vital to his character.[85]

  Buddhi (Knowledge)[edit]

  Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning.[86]In Sanskrit, the wordbuddhiis a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.[87]The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha\'s names in theGanesha Puranaand theGanesha SahasranamaisBuddhipriya.[88]This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of theGanesha Sahasranamathat Ganesha says are especially important.[89]The wordpriyacan mean \"fond of\", and in a marital context it can mean \"lover\" or \"husband\",[90]so the name may mean either \"Fond of Intelligence\" or \"Buddhi\'s Husband\".[91]

  Aum[edit]

  Ganesha is identified with the also spelledOm). The termoṃkārasvarūpa(Aum is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound.[92]TheGanapati Atharvashirsaattests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows:[93]

  (O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trinity)Brahma,Vishnu, andMahesa. You areIndra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You areBrahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], andSwargaloka[heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).

  Ganesha (Devanagari) Aum jewel

  Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha\'s body in iconography and the shape of Aum in chakra[edit]

  According toKundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the firstchakra, calledMuladhara(mūlādhāra).Mulameans \"original, main\";adharameans \"base, foundation\". The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests.[95]This association is also attested to in theGanapati Atharvashirsa. Courtright translates this passage as follows: \"[O Ganesha,] You continually dwell in thesacral plexusat the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra].\"[96]Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara.[97]Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby \"governing the forces that propel thewheel of life\".[95]

  Family and consorts[edit]See also:Mythological anecdotes of GaneshaandConsorts of GaneshaShivaandParvatigiving a bath to Ganesha. Kangra miniature, 18th century. Allahbad Museum, New Delhi.[98]

  Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son ofShivaandParvati, thePuranicmyths give different versions about his birth.[99]He may have been created by Parvati,[100]or by ShivaandParvati,[101]or may have appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati.[102]

  The family includes his brother the war godKartikeya, who is also called Subramanya, Skanda, Murugan and other names.[103]Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the first born.[104]Innorthern India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, when worship of him declined significantly in northern India. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers[105]and may reflect sectarian tensions.[106]

  Ganesha\'s marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories.[107]One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarriedbrahmacari.[108]This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India.[109]Another pattern associates him with the concepts ofBuddhi(intellect),Siddhi(spiritual power), andRiddhi(prosperity); these qualities are sometimes personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha\'s wives.[110]He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit:daşi).[111]Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts,SarasvatiorŚarda(particularly inMaharashtra).[112]He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity,Lakshmi.[113]Another pattern, mainly prevalent in theBengalregion, links Ganesha with the banana tree,Kala Bo.[114]

  TheShiva Puranasays that Ganesha had begotten two sons:Kşema(prosperity) andLābha(profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to beŚubha(auspiciouness) andLābha.[115]The 1975Hindi filmJai Santoshi Maashows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter namedSantoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma\'s cult as evidence of Ganesha\'s continuing evolution as a popular deity.[116]

  Worship and festivals[edit]Celebrations of Ganesh by theTamilcommunity inParis,France

  Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions; especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business.[117]K.N. Somayaji says, \"there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. [..] Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country\".[118]Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity.[119]

  Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity, and Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies.[120]Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin performances of arts such as theBharatnatyamdance with a prayer to Ganesha.[65]Mantrassuch asOm ShriGaṇeshāyaNamah(Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha isOmGaṃGanapataye Namah(Om,Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).[121]

  Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such asmodakaand small sweet balls (laddus).[122]He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called amodakapātra.[123]Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped withred sandalwoodpaste (raktacandana)[124]or red flowers.Dūrvāgrass (Cynodon dactylon) and other materials are also used in his worship.[125]

  Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesh Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in theśuklapakṣa(the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month ofbhādrapada(August/September) and theGaṇeśajayanti(Gaṇeśa\'s birthday) celebrated on thecathurthīof theśuklapakṣa(fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month Chaturthi[edit]Main article:Ganesh ChaturthiStreet festivities inHyderabad, Indiaduring the festival of Ganesha Chaturthi

  An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September.[127]The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising Ganesha\'s visit. The festival culminates on the day ofAnanta Chaturdashi, when idols (murtis) of Ganesha are immersed in the most convenient body of water.[128]Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893,Lokmanya Tilaktransformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event.[129]He did so \"to bridge the gap between theBrahminsand the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them\" in his nationalistic strivings against the British inMaharashtra.[130]Because of Ganesha\'s wide appeal as \"the god for Everyman\", Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule.[131]Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha inpavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day.[132]Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra.[133][134]The festival also assumes huge proportions inMumbai,Pune, and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples.

  Temples[edit]Further information:List of Ganapati templesandAshtavinayakAshtavinayakand anOmin between

  In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as an acolyte or subordinate deity (pãrśva-devatã); as a deity related to the principal deity (parivāra-devatã); or as the principal deity of the temple (pradhāna), treated similarly as the highest gods of the Hindu pantheon.[135]As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati’s doorkeeper.[136]In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (Sanskrit: lit. \"eight Ganesha (shrines)\") in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city ofPune, each of these eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore and legend.[137]The eight shrines style=\"margin: 0.5em 0px; line-height: inherit;\">There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations:Waiin Maharashtra;UjjaininMadhya Pradesh;Jodhpur,Nagaurand Raipur (Pali) inRajasthan; Baidyanath inBihar;Baroda, Dholaka, andValsadinGujaratand Dhundiraj Temple inVaranasi,Uttar Pradesh. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following:KanipakaminChittoor; theJambukeśvara TempleatTiruchirapalli; atRameshvaramandSuchindraminTamil Nadu; at andIdagunjiinKarnataka; andBhadrachalaminAndhra Pradesh.[138]

  T. A. Gopinatha notes, \"Every village however small has its own image ofVighneśvara(Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, belowpīpaḹa(Sacred fig) trees [...], in a niche [...] in temples ofViṣṇu(Vishnu) as well asŚiva(Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed inŚivatemples [...]; the figure ofVighneśvarais invariably seen.\"[139]Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, includingsoutheast Asia,Nepal(including the fourVinayakashrines in theKathmandu valley),[140]and in several western countries.[141]

  Rise to prominence[edit]First appearance[edit]

  Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries.[142]Shanti Lal Nagar says that the earliest known iconic image of Ganesha is in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been dated to theGupta period.[143]His independent cult appeared by about the 10th century.[142]Narain summarizes the controversy between devotees and academics regarding the development of Ganesha as follows:[144]

  What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaņeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaņeśa\'s Vedic origins and in thePurāṇicexplanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon ofthisdeity\" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.

  Possible influences[edit]

  Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:[145]

  In the post 600 BC period there is evidence of people and places named after the animal. The motif appears on coins and sculptures.[146]

  Thapan\'s book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that, \"although by the second century CE the elephant-headedyakṣaform exists it cannot be presumed to representGaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage.Gaṇapati-Vināyakahad yet to make his debut.\"[147]

  One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the fourVinayakas(Vināyakas).[148]InHindu mythology, theVināyakaswere a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties[149]but who were easily propitiated.[150]The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in thePurāṇasand in Buddhist Tantras.[22]Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, \"He is a non-vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of theMānavagŗhyasūtra(7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering\".[151]Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear inIndian artandcoinageas early as the 2nd century.[152]According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people ofSri Lankain the early pre-Christian era.[153]

  A metal plate depiction of Ganesha had been discovered in 1993, inIran, it dated back to 1,200 BCE.[154]Another one was discovered much before, inLorestan Provinceof Iran.[155][156]

  Vedic and epic literature[edit]Vyasa narrating the Mahabharata to Ganesha, his scribe,Angkor Wat

  The title \"Leader of the group\" (Sanskrit:gaṇapati) occurs twice in theRig Veda, but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title forBrahmanaspati, according to commentators.[157]While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today.[158]In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in theRig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it \"clearly refers toBṛhaspati—who is the deity of the clearly, the second passage (RV 10.112.9) refers toIndra,[160]who is given the epithet \'gaṇapati\', translated \"Lord of the companies (of theMaruts).\"[161]However, Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha .[162]

  Two verses in texts belonging toBlack Yajurveda,Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā(2.9.1)[163]andTaittirīya Āraṇyaka(10.1),[164]appeal to a deity as \"the tusked one\" (Dantiḥ), \"elephant-faced\" (Hastimukha), and \"with a curved trunk\" (Vakratuņḍa). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentatorSayanaexplicitly establishes this identification.[165]The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk (vakratuṇḍa) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane, and a club,[166]is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says \"we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin\".[167]However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions.[168]Thapan reports that these passages are \"generally considered to have been interpolated\". Dhavalikar says, \"the references to the elephant-headed deity in theMaitrāyaṇī Saṃhitāhave been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity\".[169]

  Ganesha does not appear inIndian epicliterature that is dated to theVedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poemMahabharatasays that the sageVyasa(Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed, but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of theMahabharata,[170]in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix.[171]The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during preparation of the critical edition.[172]Ganesha\'s association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe forVyāsa\'s dictation of theMahabharatain this interpolation.[173]Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, andMoriz Winternitzconcludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to theMahabharatasome 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature inSouth Indianmanuscripts of theMahabharatais their omission of this Ganesha legend.[174]The termvināyakais found in some recensions of theŚāntiparvaandAnuśāsanaparvathat are regarded as interpolations.[175]A reference toVighnakartṛīṇām(\"Creator of Obstacles\") inVanaparvais also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.[176]

  Puranic period[edit]For more details on this topic, seeMythological anecdotes of Ganesha.Tanjore-style painting of Ganesha

  Stories about Ganesha often occur in thePuraniccorpus. Brown notes while the Puranas \"defy precise chronological ordering\", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha\'s life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300.[177]Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant\'s head are in the later Puranas, which were composed from c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries.[178]

  In his survey of Ganesha\'s rise to prominence inSanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that:[179]

  Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surroundingGaṇeśaconcentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.

  Ganesha\'s rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century, when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities ofSmartism. The 9th-century philosopherŚaṅkarācāryapopularized the \"worship of the five forms\" (pañcāyatana pūjā) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition.[180]This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha,Vishnu, Shiva,Devī, the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.

  Scriptures[edit]Further information:Ganesha Purana,Mudgala PuranaandGanapati AtharvashirsaGanesha statue in 9th centuryPrambanantemple, Java, Indonesia

  Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities ofBrahmanism, someBrahmins(brāhmaṇas) chose to worship Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed theGanapatyatradition, as seen in theGanesha Puranaand theMudgala Purana.[182]

  The date of composition for theGanesha Puranaand theMudgala Purana—and their dating relative to one another—has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comments about dating and provides her own judgement. \"It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries\", she says, \"but was later interpolated.\"[183]Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for theGanesha Puranato be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.[184]

  R.C. Hazra suggests that theMudgala Puranais older than theGanesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400.[185]However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that theMudgala Puranawas the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, theMudgala Puranaspecifically mentions theGanesha Puranaas one of the four Puranas (theBrahma, theBrahmanda, theGanesha, and theMudgalaPuranas) which deal at length with Ganesha.[186]While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions.[187]Another highly regarded scripture, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th centuries.[188]

  Beyond India and Hinduism[edit]For more details on this topic, seeGanesha in world religions.\"Dancing Ganesh. Central Tibet. Early fifteenth century. Colours on cotton. Height: 68 centimetres\".[189]This form is also known as Maharakta (\"The Great Red One\").[190]Ganesha statue atSanggar AgungTemple,Surabaya-Indonesia, worshiped by theChinese,Hindhus,Buddhistand even theKejawen

  In 1993, a metal plate depiction of Ganesha had been discovered, in Iran, dating back to 1,200 BCE.[191]

  Commercial and cultural contacts extended India\'s influence in western and southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who reached foreign lands as a result.[192]

  Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures.[193]From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.[194]The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.[195]

  5th century \"image of Ganesha, consecrated by theShahiKing Khingala.\" found atGardez,Afghanistan.

  Hindus migrated toMaritime Southeast Asiaand took their culture, including Ganesha, with them.[196]Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in Hindu art ofJava,Bali, andBorneoshow specific regional influences.[197]The spread of Hindu culture to southeast Asia established Ganesha in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina, Hinduism andBuddhismwere practiced side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region.[198]In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of theChamsin Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.[199]Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success.[199]

  Before the arrival ofIslam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.[200]

  Ganesha appears inMahayanaBuddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist godVināyaka, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name.[201]His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period.[202]As the Buddhist godVināyaka, he is often shown dancing. This form, calledNṛttaGanapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet.[203]In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as Heramba, is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion.[204]Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him.[205]A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati istshogs bdag.[206]In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot byMahākāla,(Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity.[207]Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, and sometimes dancing.[208]Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. Innorthern China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531.[209]In Japan, where Ganesha is known asKangiten, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.[210]

  The canonical literature ofJainismdoes not mention the worship of Ganesha.[211]However, Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions ofKubera.[212]Jain connections with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections.[213]The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century.[214]A 15th-century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of Ganapati images.[211]Images of Ganesha appear in the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.[215]

  
  
  

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